Gaudiya.Com: Literature

  Utkalika-vallari of Rupa Goswami

The Gaudiya Vaishnava school, unlike many traditions, does not have a single scripture it focuses on. Its literal corpus consists of some essential scriptures from the older tradition of Vedic literature, supplemented by a vast body of literature compiled by various students and followers of Sri Caitanya, among whom the six Gosvamis of Vrindavan were foremost.

Presenting an exhaustive list of Gaudiya literature here would be next to impossible in this space. So being, we have included only works of choice that have been adopted in most lineages within the Gaudiya tradition, or that are otherwise unique. "Classical Literature" refers to writings predating Sri Caitanya, and the rest are writings compiled by the associates and followers of Sri Caitanya.

A guidebook for lila-meditation

CLASSICAL LITERATURE

Bhagavata-purana
    · Ancient Narrations of the Lord

Bhagavata-purana, also known as Srimad Bhagavatam, is a foundational text from the old Vedic corpus of literature for Gaudiya Vaishnavas. In its twelve Cantos, the Bhagavata narrates histories about the prominent avataras (descents) of God and about the lives of His devotees, along with the essence of the philosophy of the bhakti-tradition.

Bhagavad-gita
    · Song of the Lord

A chapter in the voluminous Mahabharata-epic, Bhagavad-gita is perhaps the most widely known among all Vedic scriptures, studied by scholars and seekers of both the East and the West. In a discourse between Krishna and Arjuna, this book presents a synopsis of Vedanta philosophy and the precepts of bhakti over its eighteen chapters.

Brahma-samhita
    · Hymns of Brahma

A scripture discovered by Sri Caitanya during his pilgrimage to South India. It is said to be the fifth chapter of the original hymns of Brahma in one hundred chapters, recited at the dawn of creation in praise of the Lord. The Brahma-samhita is considered essential among Vedic literatures, since it contains the gist of all Vaishnava conclusions.

Gita-govinda
    · Song about Govinda

Jayadeva's Gita-govinda is a widely known and respected poem presenting the amorous pastimes of Radha and Krishna in the springtime. Along with the writings of Candidas and Vidyapati, Gita-govinda was among Sri Caitanya's favorites.

Krishna-karnamrita
    · Nectar for Krishna's Ears

This composition of the saint Bilvamangala was also among the favorite writings of Sri Caitanya, and has been commented on by Gopala Bhatta Gosvami, Krishna Das Kaviraja and Caitanya Das. Some editions of this work include three sets of hundred verses, but only the first one is known to be Bilvamangala's with certainty.

NARRATIVES AND BIOGRAPHIES

Brihad-bhagavatamrita
    · Vast Nectar of the Lord's Devotee

This title by Sanatana Gosvami consists of two parts. The first part narrates the adventure of Narada, and the second part narrates the adventure of Gopa Kumara. The reader is introduced with various philosophical conclusions in the course of the narration. The author has also written a commentary on the title.

Caitanya-bhagavata
    · Divinity of Sri Caitanya

The first among the biographical works on Sri Caitanya, this work of Vrindavana Das Thakur is an in-depth description of the earlier life of Sri Caitanya.

Caitanya-caritamrita
    · The Nectarine Deeds of Sri Caitanya

Focusing on the later life of Sri Caitanya, this is the second among the two major biographical works about Sri Caitanya. It is also an important part of the Gaudiya theological corpus of literature, written with an aim to bring about unity in the early tradition's theology.

Gaura-ganoddesa-dipika
    · Shining Lamp on the Associates of Gaura

This work of Kavi Karnapura's describes the other-worldly identities of the prominent associates and followers of Sri Caitanya, who are presented as Krishna's companions who have descended from the world of Vrindavana.

HYMNS AND POETRY

Gopala-campu
    · Story of Gopala

Gopala-campu is a famous poetic composition of Jiva Gosvami, its two campus (purva and uttara) describing in detail the various pastimes of Krishna. Campu is a composition in which the same subject is narrated through alternations in prose and verse.

Govinda-lilamrita
    · Nectar of Govinda's Pastimes

Compiled by Krishnadas Kaviraja on the basis of Rupa Gosvami's instructions, Govinda-lilamrita is one of the main works focusing on the asta-kaliya-lila, or the daily pastimes of Radha and Krishna over the eight phases of the day, frequently read and meditated on by the mystics of the Gaudiya tradition.

Jagannatha-vallabha-nataka
    · Drama of Lover Jagannatha

This poetic drama of Ramananda Raya, describing the amorous pastimes of Radha and Krishna, was among the favorites of Sri Caitanya. The author was a close associate of his.

Krishna-bhavanamrita
    · Nectar of Thinking about Krishna

This is the third and last among the major works exposing the daily pastimes of Radha and Krishna, compiled by Visvanatha Cakravarti. It is often subtitled "Maha-kavya", or "a great work of poetry", on account of its playful, skilled use of Sanskrit language.

Krishnahnika-kaumudi
    · The Lotus of Krishna's Daily Acts

This work of Kavi Karnapura's is perhaps the first elaborate title describing the daily pastimes of Radha and Krishna. It is somewhat different in content from the other two works mentioned earlier.

Lalita-madhava
    · Playful Madhava

Lalita-madhava was originally intended to be one drama along with Vidagdha-madhava. However, Queen Satyabhama, a consort of Krishna's in the city of Dvaraka, appeared to the author, Rupa Gosvami, in a dream, and instructed him to divide his work into two separate dramas, one (Lalita-madhava) describing the pastimes of Dvaraka, and the other (Vidagdha-madhava) those of Vrindavana.

Padyavali
    · Compilation of Poetry

Padyavali is an anthology of poetry compiled by Rupa Gosvami from various sources.

Prarthana
    · Prayers

Prarthana is a collection of songs composed by Narottama Das Thakura. Its contents are generally divided in three categories, namely prayers of dedication and submission, prayers of lamentation, and prayers of spiritual aspiration.

Radha-rasa-sudhanidhi
    · The Ambrosial Ocean of Radha's Flavours

Radha-rasa-sudhanidhi of Prabodhananda Sarasvati consists of 272 verses in praise of Sri Radha, longing for Her service.

Stava-mala
    · Garland of Praise

Stava-mala is a compilation of Rupa Gosvami's writings. It includes several famous titles such as Gitavali, Upadesamrita and Utkalika-vallari, which are often separately published.

Stavavali
    · Compilation of Praise

Stavavali is a compilation of Raghunatha Das Gosvami's writings. It includes several famous titles such as Manah-siksa and Vilapa-kusumanjali, which are often separately published.

Vidagdha-madhava
    · Clever Madhava

This is a drama compiled by Rupa Gosvami, describing the pastimes of Krishna in Vrindavana. See "Lalita-madhava" for more information.

Vilapa-kusumanjali
    · A Handful of Flower-like Lamentations

Vilapa-kusumanjali of Raghunatha Das Gosvami, 104 verses of praise, longing and lamentation, is perhaps the most excellent example of absorption in the zenith of spiritual life in Vraja in the entire Gaudiya canon.

Vrindavana-mahimamrita
    · The Nectarine Glory of Vrindavana

A vast poetic composition by Prabodhananda Sarasvati, consisting of 16 couplets of 100 verses in praise of Vrindavana.

PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY

Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu
    · Ocean of the Nectar of Sacred Rapture

Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu of Rupa Gosvami is one of the foundational works in the Gaudiya school. In its four sections, it elaborately describes the nature, practices and gradations of bhakti, the constituents of bhakti-rasa (experience of sacred rapture), and the primary and secondary divisions of bhakti-rasa.

Govinda-bhasya
    · The Commentary of Govinda

Govinda-bhasya is the Gaudiya commentary on the Vedanta-sutra, an ancient, concice compilation of philosophical sayings, which is understood to be the essence of Vedanta philosophy. Baladeva Vidyabhusana compiled his commentary under the inspiration of Lord Govinda Himself, hence the name "Govinda-bhasya".

Laghu-bhagavatamrita
    · Brief Nectar of the Lord's Devotee

This work of Rupa Gosvami summarizes what is said at great lenght by Sanatana in his Brihad-bhagavatamrta. The title begins with a disscusion of the intrinsic nature of Krishna. The second part deals entirely with the theme of the devotee of Krishna.

Madhurya-kadambini
    · Cloudbank of Sweetness

This title of Visvanatha Cakravarti is an in-depth analysis of the various stages on the path of bhakti from the very beginning until the perfection. It is based on the famous "adau sraddhah" - verse of Rupa Gosvami's Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.

Prameya-ratnavali
    · Jewel-compilation of Evidence

Prameya-ratnavali, compiled along with Govinda-bhasya, is Baladeva Vidyabhusana's further contribution in establishing the scriptural basis of the Gaudiya school. Baladeva draws much of what he writes in this work from the teachings of Acarya Madhva.

Prema-bhakti-candrika
    · Moonbeam of Sacred Love

Composed in simple Bengali verse, Narottama Das Thakur's Prema-bhakti-candrika is a beautiful work delineating the basic truths of the theology and practice of bhakti.

Raga-vartma-candrika
    · Moonbeam of the Way of Passion

Drawing much of its contents from Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu, Visvanatha Cakravarti compiled the Raga-vartma-candrika as a treatise clarifying the orthodox practice and precepts of the raganuga bhakti tradition.

Sat-sandarbha
    · Six Treatises

This voluminous work was compiled by Jiva Gosvami on the basis of Gopala Bhatta Gosvami's notes. Sat-sandarbha consists of six sandarbhas, namely Tattva-sandarbha (Treatise on Truth), Bhagavata-sandarbha (Treatise on God), Paramatma-sandarbha (Treatise on the Supreme Soul), Krishna-sandarbha (Treatise on Krishna), Bhakti-sandarbha (Treatise on Devotion) and Priti-sandarbha (Treatise on Love). These six treatises systematically present the teachings of Sri Caitanya along with scriptural evidence.

Ujjvala-nilamani
    · Blazing Sapphire of Passion

This work of Rupa Gosvami's exclusively discusses the conception of madhurya bhakti rasa (amorous devotional love), a theme which the author chose not to elaborate on in his Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.

Upadesamrita
    · Nectarine Instructions

Upadesamrita belongs to Rupa Gosvami's Stava-mala, but is often seen as a separate publication, since it contains eleven essential instructions to be followed by both aspirants and practitioners of the path of bhakti.

RITUAL

Gaura-Govinda-lilamrita-gutika
    · Manual of the Nectar of Gaura-Govinda's Pastimes

Going under a number of names and in various renditions, works commonly known as Gutika are manuals delineating the detailed practice of remembering the eight-fold daily pastimes of Radha and Krishna, compiled on the basis of the teachings of Siddha Krishna Das Babaji of Govardhana.

Gaura-govindarcana-smarana-paddhati
    · Manual of Worshiping and Remembering Gaura-Govinda

Both Gopala Guru Gosvami and his disciple Dhyanacandra Gosvami have compiled a manual carrying the same title. They are the first among the manuals used by Gaudiya Vaishnavas in their practices of esoteric worship.

Hari-bhakti-vilasa
    · Acts of Devotion for Hari

This elaborate title, a joint work of Gopala Bhatta Gosvami and Sanatana Gosvami, was compiled on the request of Sri Caitanya to establish the rituals and rules of conduct for the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition. Over its twenty chapters, it focuses on diverse themes of primarily ritual worship and requirements thereof.

Gaudiya.Com: Theology

 Sri Krishna, the Original Person, is the most attractive form of God.

Our section on theology will focus on the Gaudiya Vaishnava school's concept of Divinity in His infinite aspects, culminating on its ultimate object of worship, the Divine Couple, Radha and Krishna.

Some of the descriptions found on this page are kept rather concice in fear of increasing the bulk of the presentation, and will be more elaborately discussed in separate essays found on the resources page.

Sri Radha, the embodiment of Krishna's joy, is His eternal beloved.

THREE ASPECTS OF DIVINITY

Learned men understand the Divine to manifest in three aspects, which are known as His all-pervading formless aspect, His aspect as the Lord of the heart, and his aspect as the Supreme Person.

(1) Brahman (the All-pervading Spirit): The non-differentiated aspect of the Divine is known as Brahman. This all-pervading spiritual substance is known to be the support of all the worlds, and whatever exists is known to be of Brahman only in its various manifestations. Brahman is understood to be the halo of the Supreme Person.

(2) Paramatma (the Supreme Soul): The localized aspect of the Divine is known as Paramatma. Known as the Lord of the heart, this aspect of the Supreme has expanded within the hearts of all living entities, invoking inspiration, knowledge and forgetfulness in them. He is the silent witness in our hearts, the impartial overseer and permitter of everyone's activities, and the one who keeps the world turning in accordance with the deeds of all living entities. He is an expansion of the Supreme Person for the maintenance of the cosmic manifestation.

(3) Bhagavan (the Supreme Person): The ultimate aspect of the Divine is known as Bhagavan. He is simultaneously transcendent and immanent, being situated in His own divine realm and simultaneously pervading everything through His infinite manifestations. This Supreme Person is the ultimate master, friend, father, son and beloved of all living entities. In His kindness, He manifests to everyone in accordance with their desires to serve Him, while remaining at the same time in His supremely attractive form of Sri Krishna, in whom all beauty and love find its pinnacle.

DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE SUPREME PERSON

An ancient prayer in Brahma Samhita says, "I worship Govinda, the primeval Lord, whose non-dual, perfect and eternal forms are unlimited, who is the original ancient person, yet in his blossoming youth, and who is beyond access for the Vedas, but very near to those with a pure, devoted heart."

The original Supreme Person, Krishna, expands into various forms to fulfill various purposes within His creation. He is known as Svayam Bhagavan (the Supreme Person Himself) and Lila Purusottama (the Supreme Enjoyer of Pastimes). To taste the full variety of loving exchanges with His devotees, He manifests various forms in both the material and the spiritual worlds.

Within the spiritual world, the Lord manifests Himself in His original form, in multiple forms with identical characteristics (such as in the rasa-dance and in the palaces of Dvaraka), as well as in multiple forms with different moods and characteristics (such as His brother, Balarama), which include the unlimited four-armed Vishnu forms pervading the vast spiritual sky.

When the Lord manifests Himself in the material world, the form which He displays is called "avatara", or "descent", that which descends from the world beyond. These avataras are classified under several categories in accordance with Their purpose. The general purpose of the descents is told to be threefold, namely (1) to bring joy to His devotees, (2) to destroy wicked elements in the world, and (3) to re-establish the principles of religion. These avataras are classified as follows:

(1) Lila-avatara (pastime descents): These forms of the Lord have very distinct features, and they enact unparalleled activities in this world. Some of them are Ramacandra (the ideal king and ruler), Narasimha (half-man half-lion form who saved His devotee Prahlada), and Matsya (the fish-form who swam in the waters of devastation).

(2) Purusa-avatara (descent for creation): There are three forms of the Lord particularly meant for the maintenance of the cosmic manifestation. They are (1) Karanodakasayi Vishnu who manifests all the universes, (2) Garbhodakasayi Vishnu who presides in each universe, and (3) Ksirodakasayi Vishnu, who presides in the hearts of all living entities, and is also known as the Paramatma.

(3) Guna-avatara (descents for controlling the modes of nature): There are three forms of the Lord meant for controlling each of the three modes of nature, namely goodness, passion and ignorance. (1) Brahma, who is generally an empowered living entity, is in charge of the mode of passion, and takes care of creation. (2) Vishnu is in charge of the mode of goodness, and takes care of maintenance. (3) Shiva, who is a transformed form of the Lord, is in charge of the mode of ignorance, and takes care of destruction.

(4) Saktyavesa-avatara (descents endowed with potency): When the power of the Lord for fulfilling a particular purpose is bestowed to a living entity, he is known as a saktyavesa-avatara. The powers bestowed are the power to teach divine wisdom, the power to instill devotion into others, the power to rule the world, and the power to create, among others. They are further divided into those who are directly empowered by the Lord and those who manifest a reflection of the Lord's potency.

(5) Manvantara-avatara (descents for the era of Manu): There are fourteen Manus who rule the humanity during each cosmic day of Brahma, and during each era there is a form of the Lord who descends to this world. The Lord's fourteen descents are known as Yajna, Vibhu, Satyasena, Hari, Vaikuntha Ajita, Vamana, Sarvabhauma, Risabha, Visvaksena, Dharma, Sudharma, Yogesvara and Brihadbhanu. Additionally, each Manu is a descent of the Lord.

(6) Yuga-avatara (descents for the age): There is a form of the Lord who descends in each of the four ages in the cosmic cycle of time, known as Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali-yugas. The Lord descends to teach the method of religion relevant for the particular age.

The following diagram of these manifestations will help you get the complete picture.

VARIETIES OF LOVING EXCHANGE

Considering the various manifestations of the Supreme Person from the point of view of ontological truth, they are nondifferent from each other, being manifestations of the Lord. However, there are definite differences between His various manifestations in terms of the taste experienced in loving exchanges with Him.

Primary loving relationships with the Supreme Person are known to be five-fold, namely:

(1) Santa-rasa (neutrality): When love for the Supreme is experienced upon beholding His glory, without experiencing a particular impetus for engaging in His service, the relationship is known as santa-rasa.

(2) Dasya-rasa (servitude): When love for the Supreme Person is experienced either as the reverence and submission felt by a servant towards his master, or as the respect and esteem that a son feels for his father, the relationship is called dasya-rasa.

(3) Sakhya-rasa (friendship): When love for the Supreme Person is experienced with feelings of intimacy and equality, devoid of the sense of obligation felt by a servant, the relationship is called sakhya-rasa.

(4) Vatsalya-rasa (parental love): When love for the Supreme Person is experienced as His dependence upon the devotee's nourishing, blessing and looking after Him, the relationship is called vatsalya-rasa.

(5) Madhurya-rasa (amorous love): When love for the Supreme Person is experienced as feelings of amorous love, as experienced between the lover and the beloved, or between the husband and the wife, the relationship is called madhurya-rasa.

Each subsequent relationship has more attributes and an increased feeling of intimacy. To facilitate the compatible existence of various relationships with Him, the Lord manifests His different aspects in different regions of the spiritual sky.

GRADATIONS OF PERFECTION

The spiritual sky is understood as having multiple regions wherein the Supreme Person manifests His pastimes in the company of His loving devotees. The progressive supremacy of these spiritual regions is determined in accordance with the degree of intimacy of love.

To comprehend the hieararchy of the various regions, we need to accustom ourselves with two basic concepts: (1) aisvarya (supernatural might and opulence), and (2) madhurya (natural sweetness and intimacy).

(1) Aisvarya: The Lord's exhibition of supernatural might and opulence which causes a feeling of fearful awe and reverence in the heart of the devotee, is known as aisvarya.

(2) Madhurya: The abundant sweetness of human-like relationships with the Lord, which covers any considerations of His Godhood under the veil of loving intimacy, is known as madhurya.

The more intimate and independent of the status of the object of love the love is, the more complete it is understood to be. Therefore gradations of perfection among the Lord's various features are measured on the scale of the presence of madhurya.

The spiritual sky is known as "Vaikuntha". In the shining realm of Vaikuntha, in the midst of innumerable Vaikuntha-planets, there is a divine planet called Goloka, which is the pinnacle of the spiritual sky. Goloka is further divided into three main sections, namely Dvaraka, Mathura and Vraja. Let us examine them:

(1) Vaikuntha: In Vaikuntha, the Lord is present in His four-armed Vishnu-forms, manifesting His supernatural opulences. The devotees in Vaikuntha-region serve the Lord filled with awe and reverence. Here the Lord is known to be complete.

(2) Dvaraka and Mathura: In Dvaraka and Mathura, the mood of devotion is a mixture of alternating reverence and sweetness. Here the Lord is known to be more complete.

(3) Vraja: In Vraja, the mood of devotion is of pure sweetness, and even the Lord's display of unparalleled majesty does not diminish the natural love of His devotees. Here the Lord is known to be most complete.

When Sri Krishna descends to this world, He manifests three ages: (1) childhood, (2) boyhood, and (3) youth. The first period of five years is filled with pastimes of parental love, the second with pastimes of friendly love, and the third with pastimes of amorous love. This enchanting form saturated with carefree blossoming youth is considered to be the perfection of His being, and the most attractive among all of His forms.

Though the various forms of the Lord are analyzed and hierarchically presented, there is certainly no fault in any of them. They are all eternal, filled with knowledge and ecstacy, and perfect in their position of enabling His experience of the full spectrum of loving interaction.

THE DIVINE COUPLE

The divine counterpart of Sri Krishna is known as Sri Radha. Sri Radha is the complete energy, and Sri Krishna is the complete source of energy. They are nondifferent from each other, just as musk and its scent are inseparable, or as fire and its heat are nondifferent.

Just as Krishna expands Himself to Dvaraka and to Vaikuntha, so Radha expands along with Him to assume the forms of the Queens of Dvaraka and the Laksmi-goddesses of Vaikuntha. The cowherd maidens of Vraja are manifest from Her being to expand the relish of amorous adventures.

Radha and Krishna are one, yet They have assumed two separate forms to enjoy loving pastimes. She is Krishna's own divine potency who accompanies Him in His pleasure sports, being thoroughly imbued with and consisting of love for Him. Since Radha is filled with all divine qualities, She alone is able to fulfill all the desires of Krishna.

Poet Krishnadas Kaviraja has described the unparalleled beauty of the Divine Couple:

"May that Sri Krishna, son of the king of the cowherd men — whose effulgent bodily complexion defeats the luster of a fresh monsoon cloud, collyrium and sapphire, whose yellow cloth is more effulgent than kunkuma, the rising sun and a flash of lightning, and whose entire form is anointed with sandalwood paste mixed with camphor and saffron — bestow upon me the service of His lotus feet!

May that Srimati Radhika — whose bodily complexion snatches away the pride of a golden lotus flower tinged with kunkuma, whose bodily fragrance reproaches the fame of a fragrant lotus sprinkled with saffron powder, and who fulfills all the desires of the prince of Vraja, Sri Krishna — always bestow upon me the service of Her lotus feet!

May that Sri Krishna, son of the king of the cowherd men — who pleases Srimati Radhika and the cowherd maidens with the nectar of His pastimes in the forest groves and in the circle-dance, who nourishes them with His jokes and tricks, and who delights the hearts of everyone with His supernatural love, character, playfulness, and fame — bestow upon me the service of His lotus feet!

May that Srimati Radhika — whose softness defeats the fame of delicate budding flowers, whose body's coolness is worshipable for the moon, sandalwood-paste, the lotus, and camphor, and whose touch dispels the heat of Sri Krishna's amorous desires — always bestow upon me the service of Her lotus feet!"

In the wake of these prayers, Gaudiya Vaishnavas aspire to personally serve the Divine Couple in their amorous pastimes in the role of Sri Radha's manjaris (handmaids), assisting Them in various ways in the fulfillment of Their love.